Biblical History


On the Use of Titles in the Church

On the Use of Titles in the Church

It is a natural human tendency to give and receive honor, but mostly to receive it. This can be seen in nearly every walk of life and in every culture. It was equally common in the ancient world. For example, the kings of ancient Mesopotamia were fond of titles like “king of the four quarters of the world” or “king of kings.” The rulers of the Roman world were little different. Although they generally avoided the title “king” for political and historical reasons, they collected many other titles. This inscription from Athens......


James and the "Gold Ring"

James and the “Gold Ring”

James chapter 2 begins with a warning against showing favoritism in the church. James starts with a hypothetical scenario where “a man comes into your meeting wearing a gold ring and fine clothes” (James 2:2). Today, it seems that nearly everyone in North America wears a gold ring. It is commonly used to signify that a person is engaged or married, but the modern use of gold rings goes far beyond that as well. So what was James getting at when he described a person who wears a gold ring? The word......


A Sabbath Day's Journey

A Sabbath Day’s Journey

Acts 1:12 mentions that the distance traveled by the disciples from the place of the Ascension to Jerusalem was about “a Sabbath day’s journey.” How far was this? The setting of Acts 1:12 has the disciples returning to Jerusalem after the Ascension of Jesus. Although Jesus and the disciples had been in or near Bethany (Luke 24:50), which is about a mile and a half east of Jerusalem, the Ascension appears to have taken place somewhere on the Mount of Olives (Acts 1:12). There is no reference to a “Sabbath day’s journey”......


Was Caiaphas a Descendant of Aaron?

Was Caiaphas a Descendant of Aaron?

I received a question recently about whether or not Caiaphas, the high priest who presided at the trial of Jesus before the Sanhedrin, was actually qualified to be a priest. More specifically, was he of the line of priests who were descended from Aaron and thus able to serve as a priest? The question is relevant for two reasons. The first is that good genealogical records for the priests of the 1st century have not been preserved. The second is that the office of high priest became politicized in the Maccabean period,......


Hamstring Their Horses

Hamstring Their Horses

In Joshua 11:6 God told Joshua that he would deliver the Canaanites into the hands of Israel, and that Joshua should “hamstring their horses and burn their chariots with fire.” This raises two questions: 1) what exactly were the Israelites to do to the horses, and 2) what was the purpose of this command? The first question is more difficult, the second is pretty easy. The verb “to hamstring” is the Hebrew word iqqer (עִקֵּר). Most English versions render this as “hamstring,” although some prefer a less-specific term like “cripple” (NLT, CEB). ......


Wisdom vs. Godliness

Wisdom vs. Godliness

Although wisdom is always upheld in the Bible as a desirable trait, it does not necessarily keep a person from evil. Consider Solomon. As a young king he was asked by God to name his request, with the implication that God would grant whatever he asked. His request was not for wealth or victory over his enemies, but for understanding and wisdom in judging between good and evil (1 Kings 3:9). God was pleased with this request, and said, “Because you have asked this thing and have not asked for yourself long......


Was Rahab of Jericho an Ancestor of the Messiah?

Was Rahab of Jericho an Ancestor of the Messiah?

In his genealogy of Jesus, Matthew mentions a several women along with the male ancestors of the Messiah. One of these is a certain “Rahab” who was married to Salmon (Matt 1:5). Although it might seem intuitive to identify this woman as the Rahab of Jericho (Josh 2:1ff), there are also some good reasons to think that it may have been a different person. One difference between Matthew’s “Rahab” and the woman of Jericho is the spelling of her name. The English spelling “Rahab” is an approximation of the Hebrew name. The......


Was Jesus Black?

Was Jesus Black?

Was Jesus black? This question comes up from time to time. After all, how do we know what ancient people looked like? In this case, archaeology provides a clear answer. In a nutshell, no, Jesus was not black. This is clear from two perspectives. The first is that the Jewish people of the OT period were not black, a fact that is made abundantly clear by ancient depictions of people in that region. The second is that depictions of people from the area of Judea/Palestine in Jesus’s day make clear that the......


Absalom: Caught by Head or Hair?

Absalom: Caught by Head or Hair?

Absalom was a son of David who instigated a revolt, an attempt to overthrow David and take his place on the throne. This led to a battle in the heavily wooded mountains of “the forest of Ephraim” (2 Sam 18:6). When Absalom was confronted by some of David’s men, he fled on his mule, was caught in the branches of a great oak, suspended in the air, and was eventually killed by Joab and other soldiers of David. One of the oddities associated with this story is that, despite the clear wording......


Unveiling Daniel 11, Part 2

Unveiling Daniel 11, Part 2

For Part 1, covering Daniel 11:1-4, see here. Daniel 11:5-35 relates to the Greek kingdoms of the period between the Old Testament and New Testament. The main players in this section of Daniel’s prophecy are various “kings of the South,” who were kings of the Ptolemaic kingdom in Egypt, and “kings of the North,” who were kings of the Seleucid kingdom in Syria. The period is fairly well-documented, and the accuracy of Daniel’s prophecy has led many biblical scholars to deny that it is prophecy, arguing instead that it is a mere......


Unveiling Daniel 11, Part 1

Unveiling Daniel 11, Part 1

Daniel 11 presents the fourth vision given to the prophet Daniel. Much of the chapter pertains to events that unfolded during the intertestamental period, also known as the Hellenistic age. The vision was given in year 3 of Cyrus (Dan 10:1). Daniel 11:1 should be appended to the end of chapter 10, as it relates to the help that the heavenly messenger was given by Gabriel. Daniel 11:2 specifies “three more kings” who were to arise. These were Cambyses, Gaumata, and Darius I. Cambyses was the first Persian king to successfully take......


2,300 Mornings and Evenings

2,300 Mornings and Evenings

Daniel 8:13-14 includes an enigmatic statement about the length of the desolation of the holy place. “Then I heard a holy one speaking, and another holy one said to that particular one who was speaking, ‘How long will the vision about the regular sacrifice apply, while the transgression causes horror, so as to allow both the holy place and the host to be trampled?’ And he said to me, ‘For 2,300 evenings and mornings; then the holy place will be properly restored‘” (NAS). There are at least three questions that relate to......


Shut the Door!

Shut the Door!

In Malachi 1:10, God laments the half-hearted service of the priests. He says, “Oh that there were one among you who would shut the doors, that you might not kindle fire on my altar in vain!” (ESV). We normally think of shutting the doors or gates as a way to protect a house or city from an outside threat. The angels who visited Lot pulled him inside and “shut the door” to keep out the inhabitants of Sodom (Gen 19:10). In the eerily similar case where the Levite found refuge with an......


Was Daniel a Eunuch?

Was Daniel a Eunuch?

It is suggested from time to time that Daniel and his friends may have served as eunuchs in the court of Nebuchadnezzar. This idea is illustrated, for example, in the 14th century illuminated manuscript shown above, which depicts the Hebrew captives being castrated. Where does this idea come from, and how reliable is it? The best case to be made for supposing that Daniel was a eunuch hangs on an implication and the translation of a Hebrew word. If you read the KJV (or ESV), you will find 7 references in Daniel......


Life and Times of Daniel

Life and Times of Daniel

As we start out a new Sunday School series on the book of Daniel it may be helpful to see Daniel in the midst of the events that were going on in his day. Daniel was born when the ruthless Assyrian empire still ruled the north. Egypt was still an independent nation to the south, and would remain independent until conquered by the Persian king Cambyses in 525 BC. We don’t know when Daniel was born, but perhaps it was around 620 BC. We do know that he was deported as a......


Did Jesus Have an Ossuary?

Did Jesus Have an Ossuary?

Jewish burials in the first century AD in the area of Jerusalem followed a regular pattern. The tomb itself was dug as a cave in the rock. The typical tomb included a small room that had one or more benches located around it, each about 5 or 6 feet long, as well as smaller cavities or niches that were dug into the walls. When a person was buried, they were brought into the tomb and laid on one of the benches (blue in the diagram above). The tomb was then sealed for......


A Rolling Stone

A Rolling Stone

The Gospel accounts tell that a large stone was used to block the entrance to Jesus’ tomb (Matt 27:60). Many modern artists incorrectly depict that stone as a massive 5-6′ stone disk. Archaeology tells a different story, and one that fits better with the Gospel accounts. Archaeologists have excavated hundreds of rock-hewn burial caves around Jerusalem from the time of Jesus. Three different types of tomb closures have been found: swinging stone doors, large circular disks, and heavy square blocking stones. The first two types, swinging stone doors and large circular disks,......


Where was Jesus' Tomb?

Where was Jesus’ Tomb?

Christian tourists who visit Jerusalem nearly always want to see the tomb of Jesus. There are two locations that they most often visit. Is either more likely to be the actual tomb of Jesus than the other? History and archaeology give a clear answer. The so-called “Garden Tomb” is located north of the Old City of Jerusalem. It provides a serene, outdoor garden setting that allow the visitor to contemplate the resurrection in a pleasant setting. For that reason it is worth visiting. However, it is not the tomb of Jesus. The......


Battling City to City in Esther

Battling City to City in Esther

Xerxes, the king of the Persian Empire in the days of Esther, granted the Jews the right to defend themselves from their attackers on the 13th day of Adar, 473 BC. Esther 9:16 indicates that on that day the Jews killed “75,000 of those who hated them.” How large was this number to Xerxes? One way to evaluate it would be to compare it to some of the battles that the Persian army fought in those days. Here are a few examples: Battle of Thermopylae, Aug 480 BC – about 20,000 Persians......


Two Days Fighting in Susa

Two Days Fighting in Susa

Purim, a celebration of the victory of the Jews over their enemies in the days of Esther, is celebrated for two days. In 2019, Purim was March 21 and Shushan Purim was March 22. The book of Esther explains that, although the Jewish populations were victorious throughout the land on Adar 13, in the capital city of Susa the fighting was extended an extra day (Esth 9:17-19). Why did the fighting in Susa take an extra day? There are two observations that may be helpful in answering this question. The first is......


How Far to Elephantine?

When Mordecai created a new edict allowing the Jews of the Persian empire to defend themselves from their attackers (Esther 8:11-12), he needed to send it throughout the kingdom. In fact, it went to the Jewish communities as well as to all the various governors throughout the empire, “from India to Ethiopia, 127 provinces” (Esth 8:9). Once copies of the new edict were made, how far would it need to be taken, and how long would it take to get it to the farthest reaches of the  empire? After Nebuchadnezzar and the......


Haman's No Good, Very Bad Day

Haman’s No Good, Very Bad Day

Its amazing what a single day can bring. For Haman, his final day began with a sense of anticipation. He was waiting in the outer court of the palace at the crack of dawn to ask the king for permission to kill Mordecai. His plan was to impale Mordecai on a 75′ pole that he had set up in his front yard, and he was anxious to get quick approval. His first setback came with the king’s command to honor Mordecai by parading him around the city square, dressed in the king’s......


"What Honor or Dignity?"

“What Honor or Dignity?”

When Xerxes (Ahasuerus) heard again of how Mordecai the Jew had saved his life, he asked, “What honor or dignity has been bestowed on Mordecai for this?” (Est 6:3). The answer, of course, was that nothing had been done, an embarrassing situation for the king. From the tablets preserved in the Persepolis Fortification Archive, we know that daily events were initially recorded on small tablets that could easily be held in one hand. The tablets of this kind are shaped something like a capital D, with one end rounded and the other......


The King's Chronicles - What Language?

The King’s Chronicles – What Language?

Esther 6:1 records that Xerxes (Ahasuerus) could not sleep, so he called for the court records to be brought and read before him. What exactly did they bring, and in what language were such records kept? There are several places in the book of Esther where proclamations are made throughout the Persian empire, and it seems to have been standard procedure that they were issued “to every people according to their language” (Esth 1:22; cf. 3:12, 8:9). But what language and script was used in the royal palace for the official records?......


Haman's "Gallows"

Haman’s “Gallows”

There are a number of references to hanging in the book of Esther, which has traditionally been paired in English translations with the noun “gallows.” Esther 2:23 – the two conspirators were hung Esther 5:14 – Haman’s wife and friends suggest that he hang Mordecai Esther 7:9 – Haman was hung on the “gallows” he had built for Mordecai Esther 9:13 – Haman’s ten sons were hung However, the “gallows” was not a platform and cross beam as we think of it, for hanging a person by breaking their neck or by......


Esther and the Presumption of Innocence

Esther and the Presumption of Innocence

One of the founding legal principles of United States is the presumption of innocence. We are “innocent until proven guilty” in the eyes of the law. Although many American’s do not realize it, this is a principle that originates in the Bible. Two examples demonstrate this. Deut 17:6 requires that corroborated evidence must be used for a conviction, “on the evidence of two or three witnesses . . . not on the evidence of one witness.” An accusation alone is insufficient to condemn. There must be evidence of the strongest kind (multiple......


Ring of Pontius Pilate Discovered

Ring of Pontius Pilate Discovered

A ring that once belonged to Pontius Pilate has been discovered at Herodium in southern Judaea. We know it belonged to him because it has his name inscribed on it. The Greek letters read “ΠΙΛΑΤΟ”, “Pilate.” The first two letters are on the right, the last four are on the left, bottom to top (meant to be read around the frame). This find is interesting for several reasons. One is that, outside of the Bible, very little is known of Pilate. He is mentioned several times by the contemporary historian Josephus, and......


Golden Scepter of Ahasuerus

Golden Scepter of Ahasuerus

Queen Esther made an uninvited visit to King Ahasuerus, also known as Xerxes, when she went to plead for the lives of her people. She had previously mentioned the law that anyone who appeared before the king without having first been summoned would be put to death, unless the king held out his golden scepter (Est 4:11). Esther’s courage was rewarded, as Ahasuerus did in fact extend the golden scepter to her when she appeared before him, sparing her life (Est 5:2). When we hear of a “golden scepter,” we might envision......


Mordecai in the City Square

Mordecai in the City Square

Twice in the book of Esther we find Mordecai in the city square. It would be easy to imagine that this was a marketplace in the center of town like is usually seen in Greco-Roman cities a few centuries later. However, enough detail is given in the book of Esther to identify the city square of Susa, and it was not in the center of town. Rather, it was an open plaza in front of the palace, the nearest most people could come to the palace without an official invitation. You can......


Paul's Centurion, Julius

Paul’s Centurion, Julius

Acts 27:1 names the centurion who was placed in charge of Paul for his voyage to Rome as “Julius.” Perhaps the fact that he is named is an indicator that he was a follower of Jesus. At any rate, an interesting inscription, pictured above, was discovered at Caesarea, the port from which Paul and Julius set sail for Rome. What makes it interesting is that it has four similarities to the centurion mentioned in Acts 27:1. 1) The personal name is the same. In Latin, it is spelled “IVLIVS,” the exact equivalent......


Esther's Thirty Days (Esther 4:11)

Esther’s Thirty Days (Esther 4:11)

After discovering that an edict had been issued for the extermination of the Jewish people, Mordecai urged Esther to take action by making an appeal to the king. Esther’s response was that, as everyone knew, going before the king without a summons was very risky. Unless the king extended his golden scepter, any such person would be put to death. Esther then makes a very interesting statement: “I have not been summoned to come before the king for these thirty days.” Although this could be taken as a simple observation, the way......


Mordecai at the King's Gate

Mordecai at the King’s Gate

Esther 2:19 describes Mordecai as “sitting at the king’s gate” in Susa. Although excavations have been carried out at Susa since the mid-1800’s, archaeologists only discovered the King’s Gate in 1970. It is located about 260 feet to the east of the palace. The gate was set at the edge of a moat that separated the palace complex from the royal city. A bridge across the moat ended at this gate, thus ensuring that it controlled access to the entire palace complex. This gate was massive. It measured 130 by 100 feet,......


Siglum for a Centurion

Siglum for a Centurion

Latin inscriptions from ancient Rome often used abbreviations. For example, many Roman coins were minted with the inscription “S C” emblazoned on them. This stood for the Latin phrase Senatus Consulto, indicating that the coin had been minted with the approval of the Roman Senate. Names and titles were also commonly abbreviated. The phrase “Tiberius Caesar, son of the divine Augustus,” which in Latin would be Tiberius Caesar divi Augustus Filius, might be abbreviated TI CAESAR DIVI AVG F. One must be familiar with both Latin and abbreviations to decipher such obscure......


Esther's Rise as Queen

Esther’s Rise as Queen

There are some interesting deductions that can be made with regard to the date and time of Esther’s being chosen as the new queen of the Persian Empire. Although the timing of these events is not obvious to a casual reader of the book, closer inspection does allow for the creation of a fairly precise timeline. Note the following: Both the Hebrew and Persian calendars were lunar-based, and their New Year began in about March/April in the Julian calendar (the exact time fluctuated from year to year, as the date for Easter......


Drinks in Golden Vessels

Drinks in Golden Vessels

When Ahasuerus (also known as Xerxes I) held a banquet in Susa at the end of his military planning party, he served drinks in “golden vessels of various kinds” (Esther 1:7). Over the years, archaeologists have recovered a whole variety of these kinds of vessels from the royal palaces of Persia. Many of these drinking vessels, called “rhytons,” are fashioned in the shape of an animal, seamlessly attached to a flared drinking cup. The one shown in this photo is made of pure gold, as are many others known from this period.......


Esther & Chronology

Esther & Chronology

A quick read through the book of Esther might leave the impression that all of the events in the book transpired within six months. However, there are three references in the book to specific dates in the reign of King Ahasuerus (Xerxes I). The first banquet took place in the third year of his reign, 483 BC (Est 1:3). Esther became queen in the seventh year of his reign, 478 BC (Est 2:16). Haman hatched his plot to destroy the Jews in the 12th year of Ahasuerus. Because this happened in the......


God Keeps His Promises

God Keeps His Promises

Sunday in our introduction to Esther we saw that our God is a covenant keeping God. He is a God whose word can be trusted and relied upon. One of the examples mentioned was Joseph, who believed God would return Israel to the promised land. His belief was so firm that he forced the sons of Israel to promise to take his bones with them when they left Egypt. “Joseph said to his brothers, “I am about to die, but God will surely take care of you and bring you up from......


Julius the Centurion?

Julius the Centurion?

In Acts 27:1-3, Luke gives an account of the first leg of Paul’s voyage to Rome. Twice in these verses he mentions the centurion who was put in charge of taking Paul to Rome. Interestingly, he calls him by name, “Julius.” This is in contrast to the centurion and the tribune (of even higher rank) mentioned in Acts 22:25-28, both of whom remain anonymous. Why does Luke give the name of the centurion in Acts 27? In his book Jesus and the Eyewitnesses, Richard Bauckham suggests that typically the reason why some......


I, Tertius

I, Tertius

There are several places in Paul’s letters where his use of a secretary or amanuensis is clear. In Romans 16:22, the amanuensis pens his own line, “I, Tertius, who write this letter, greet you in the Lord.” An even more interesting case is where Paul himself borrowed the pen and wrote a few lines. This is evident in Galatians 6:11 where he wrote, ” See with what large letters I am writing to you with my own hand.” Paul implied that the Galatians could distinguish between his handwriting (with large letters) and......


Erastus the City Treasurer Greets You

Erastus the City Treasurer Greets You

Paul wrote the letter to the Romans from the city of Corinth. In his final greetings at the end of the book, he sends greetings from “Erastus the city treasurer” (Rom 16:23). An Latin inscription was found at Corinth during excavations in 1929 that mentions Erastus. The inscription was located along the pavement near the theater, and reads, “Erastus in return for his aedileship paved it at his own expense” (the Latin text is ERASTVS. PRO. AED. S. P. STRAVIT, which is abbreviated from ERASTUS PRO AEDILITATE SUA PECUNIA STRAVIT). John McRay......